Behaviourism
Psychologists school o thought in which students learn through consequence of their actions. (Pavlov, 1927) animal experiments: animal was taught that when they were offered food a bell was sounded. If a bell was sounded the animal would then wait in anticipation of the reward of food. This is ‘classical conditioning’.
(Thorndike’s, 1932) teachings were similar concluded that learning is more complex than Pavlov’s. Animals can seek to manipulate the environment. They learn what works and what doesn’t through trial and error and then work only towards what works to benefit them. If you reward the desired behaviour then it would be more likely that behaviour would occur This was called ‘The Law of Effect’
(Skinner, 1953) adapted this theory even further and is the most well-known of the behaviourist theorists. He concluded that through animal experiments that learning could be encouraged or discouraged through either rewards or punishments. If a consequence is desired the task would be repeated. If the consequence was negative it wouldn’t be repeated. He found that firstly behaviour could be shaped by breaking the learning down into smaller pieces and if each stage was rewarded. Secondly after you establish what the response is from the positive reinforcement, intermitted reinforcement was more effective.
This method of learning of providing positive reinforcement through teacher praise and recognition after good work or positive contribution to the class gives the student motivation and student progression for continuous learning. It facilitates that good work equals and good outcome and praise. By breaking down the tasks into smaller chunks it allows for the student to be guided through the direction of study or curriculum.
One criticism: It doesn’t take into account the complexity of human behaviour. It also leaves out abstract skills such as music/ art appreciation or poetry or vicariously or unconscious learning. The idea of reward and punishment could be seen as manipulative and brings up ethical issues.
Cognitive Theories:
Originates from Kohler (1925), Tolman (1932). Learning could be reduced to stimulus response associations. Animal experiments allowed them to test theories that they could solve problems through insight or developing a mental schemata of the problem.
Piaget (1950) identified the intellectual growth and learning stages from birth from concrete thinking to abstract reasoning. The theory identifies that learners identify perception, sense making, memory and recall. The brain is like a computer: it received inputs, it records the information and organises it and remembers it and then runs from the new information. Because people are different the rate of input varies from student to student. The role of teacher is to build a mental picture of what is to be learnt. Techniques to do this for example are: mind maps on a board, showing concept diagrams, structuring lecture or seminar information to allow it to be easily assimilated, teach memorising and recalling techniques, creating learning material which allows for different learning styles.
Don’t overload the working memory; break tasks down into small components; highlight important facts and relationships; chunk information; remind students of prior learning; get students to recall previous learned material and contextualise it; relate new knowledge to old and link with students’ own experience.
Constructivism:
It extends cognitive theories by seeing how learning is constructed. All knowledge is constructed in the brain. Learners experience is determined through how they construct knowledge and subsequently how they then see the world (von Glaserfeld (1995))
Because knowledge is subjective, everyone learns differently. Muijs and Reynolds (2005). Learning involves searching for meaning. Learning is constructed socially though group interaction and tasks. Learners apply new knowledge to pre existing knowledge in order to make sense. Effective learning happens when students can contextualise and see how one subject can relate to another and see how this knowledge is connected, as a whole rather than ‘fragmented’ pieces of information.
It is important to construct meaning, and support students to find connections through their learning, drawing on personal experience and relating prior knowledge to new learning. Muijs and Reynolds (2005, p.63) argue forcefully that “Teaching is about empowering the learner, and allowing the learner to discover and reflect on realistic experiences. This will lead to deeper understanding”.
They also argue that real life experience and hands on learning is more effective than just purely reading from text books.
Social Learning Theory:
It develops the behaviourists theory and states that we learn by observing others learning. The lead theorist of this concept is (Bandura, 1975) Although reward and consequence works in learning to some extent by creating new patterns in learning. Most behaviour which people display is either deliberate or inadvertent through ‘influence of example’ (Bandura, 1975, p.5) The advantage of learning from observation is that students can earn from example and learn to avoid the ‘punishment’ or incorrect route of knowledge before it happens to them. The disadvantage of learning this way is that the observed may not be the correct person to watch and might provide inaccurate or incorrect learning.
From a social learning theory it is said that teachers should act as a role model. They should be enthusiastic, knowledgeable, giving constructive feedback, motivational, show eagerness for their subject in order for students to learn from and emulate. For instance a Contemporary Art Practice student could look up to a famous and well regarded ceramicist in order to learn from and inspire, encouraging the student to be entrepreneurial. The role of the teacher is also to be constructively critical of the role model to be socially responsible and ethical.
Experimental Learning:
Learn from doing and reflect on what has been done so lessons can be learnt. It combines elements of Behaviourism, Cognitive and Constructivist approaches. Students must act on their environment but also cognate on them in order to make sense of them.
Kolb (1984) most famous theorist on this subject. The 4 stages of experimental learning.
Wolf and Kolb (1984) developed a learning style inventory which measured the ability in each of te 4 areas. “(AC+AE) which describes people who are interested in the practical application of ideas; divergent (CE+RO) a style exhibited by those who have imaginative abilities and like to be innovative; assimilation (AC+RO) reflected in the behaviour of people who like theories and try to make sense of disparate facts/events; Accommodative (CE+AE) reflected in the behaviour of people who like to plan and gain new experiences.”
Teachers should provide opportunity for students to gain hands on learning. Also, opportunity for reflection should be given in the form of: reflective essays, logs and discussions with peers. “Understanding of individual differences, however, is important in creating a rich, varied and equitable learning environment.”
Andragogy:
This is associated with how older people and adults learn. Knowles et al (1984) Adults learn differently from children. They acquire knowledge on a need to know basis, drawing on their own experience to problem solve and are motivated primarily by intrinsic factors. Students will learn something if they can see value in the outcome. “practical exercises should be used as instructional tools which stimulate problem-solving and allow students to draw on their own experience”
Adult learners are self directed. The teacher therefore needs to allow the student to keep control over what they are learning an d make choices. This makes the teacher a facilitator and guide rather than instructor, preventing spoon feeding the student. The problem lies in the idea of who is an adult? (people mature at different rates)
Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Kohler, W. (1925) The Mentality of Apes, Harcourt, Brace and World.
Kolb, D.A. (1984) Experiential Learning, New-Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Knowles, M. and Associates (1984) Andragogy in Action, Houston: Gulf Publishing Co.
Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex. Translated and Edited by G. V. Anrep. London: Oxford University Press.
Piaget, J. (1950) The Psychology of Intelligence, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Tolman, E.C. (1932) Purposive Behaviour in Animals and Men, The Century Co., Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Thorndike, E.L. (1932) The Fundamentals of Learning, Teachers College, New York.
Skinner, B.F. (1953) Science and Human Behaviour, New York Macmillan
von Glasersfeld, E. (1995). Radical Constructivism: A Way of Knowing and Learning. London & Washington: The Falmer Press.
Wolf, D.M. and Kolb, D.A. (1984) Career development, personal growth and experiential learning, in Organisational Psychology: Readings on Human Behaviour, 4th edn., eds. D. Kolb, I Rubin, and J. McIntryre, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
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